From Atoms to Droplets (Five-level analysis)

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3. Atom

An attractive woman smiling on the left and a periodic table of elements on the right with the Carbon section magnified.

The Fundamental Unit of Chemistry An atom represents the most basic unit of a chemical element, the smallest particle that still retains the properties of that element. At the center is the nucleus, comprised of protons with a positive charge and neutrons with no charge. Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of electrons, each bearing a negative charge bound by electromagnetic forces. Atoms are fundamental to understanding chemical reactions because they are the primary constituents that interact during these processes.

In pigmentology, or the study of pigments, considering the atom is foundational, it does not offer extensive insights into the behavior of pigments. This is because pigments' properties are not solely determined by the individual atoms but rather by how these atoms are bonded together to form molecules and larger structures.

The Example of Carbon

When examining Carbon, a pivotal element in pigmentology, particularly for pigments like Carbon Black (CI 77266), several atomic properties are noteworthy.

Classification as a Nonmetal. Carbon is categorized as a nonmetal, reflecting its ability to form various types of chemical bonds and molecules, including long chains and rings, which is essential for the formation of complex organic pigments.

Atomic Number. Carbon's atomic number is 6, which indicates it has six protons in its nucleus. The number of protons defines the element and its position in the periodic table.

Atomic Mass. The atomic mass of Carbon is approximately 12.011 atomic mass units (amu), an average that takes into account the different naturally occurring isotopes of Carbon, including their respective abundances. This mass includes the weight of both protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Relevance to Pigmentology

While Carbon is relatively light compared to many other elements, this atomic characteristic does not directly inform us about the practical aspects of using Carbon as a pigment, such as how easy it is to implant the colorant into the skin or how long it will retain its color once applied. Instead, these aspects are influenced by the form and structure that Carbon takes when incorporated into a pigment - whether as a simple elemental form like in Carbon Black or as part of larger, more complex organic molecules.

Therefore, while the atom is the basic building block of matter, in pigmentology, we are more concerned with the behavior of collections of atoms - that is, molecules and particles. These larger structures, along with their interactions with biological systems, dictate the properties that are most relevant to semi-permanent makeup, such as color richness, lightfastness, and longevity.

4. Molecule

A molecule is an assembly of at least two atoms bonded together, forming the smallest identifiable unit of a compound that retains the chemical properties of that compound. Chemical bonds, such as covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds, are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.

Hydrocarbon Example - CH4

Hydrocarbons such as methane (CH4) are molecules composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon. The term "hydrocarbon" can denote simple molecules and complex polymers characterized by various structures and physical properties. These can range from gases like methane and propane to liquids such as hexane and benzene or to solids like paraffin wax and naphthalene, each with different phases and manifestations.

Molecules in Pigmentology

In pigmentology, the molecular structure of a colorant contributes to its inherent properties, such as color. Yet, the practical behavior of a pigment - its solubility, ease of implantation, and Retention - can vastly differ depending on the processing and formation of larger pigment particles. Thus, a molecule does not define the properties of the pigment.

Implantation and Retention

Implanting pigment into the skin during semi-permanent makeup procedures introduces far more than single molecules; it often involves thousands of atoms united into particles. The behavior of these particles, rather than individual molecules, influences implantation properties. Molecular properties become relevant when they affect the particle's properties, especially those that influence charge, polarity, or reactivity, which in turn affect interactions with skin cells and immune cells.

Particle Structure vs. Molecular Structure

Larger pigment particles, which may form polymers and paracrystalline structures, have properties that significantly differ from the individual molecules from which they are composed. These larger structures govern the pigment's behavior, stability, and degradation over time.

Misconceptions and Incorrect Assumptions It is a misconception to attribute the degradation reactions of pigments solely to the properties of individual molecules. The breakdown of pigment particles typically involves the disintegration of aggregates or larger particles. It is essential to distinguish between the molecular composition of pigments and the behavior of pigments as aggregates or larger particles within the skin.

Thus, while the molecular structure is fundamental for understanding the potential properties of colorants, the larger particle structures most significantly influence the color, application, Retention, and degradation of pigments in semi-permanent makeup. Understanding the behavior of these particles in a biological context is critical to differentiating between the molecular composition of pigments and their actual behavior within the skin.

5. Particle

An attractive smiling woman on the left, an onion cut in half in the middle, and a Carbon Black pigment particle that looks like a sphere that has been composed of small irregularly placed layers.

Particle and Particle Size

Analyzing the properties of a colorant at the particle level is indeed productive, as the particle is a more relevant unit than the molecule for understanding the behavior of pigments in practical applications. Particles are aggregates composed of thousands of atoms with a molecular structure and properties significantly different from the individual atoms or molecules from which they are made.

Particle Size and Properties

The particle size of carbon-based colorants is crucial as it influences how the pigment interacts with light, its stability, and its behavior within a medium such as the skin. For instance, carbon black particles used in semi-permanent makeup pigments may range from around 100 nm to 500 nm in diameter. The larger the particle, the more likely it is to scatter a broader spectrum of light wavelengths, which affects the perceived color and lightfastness.

Production Methods and Impact

Different production methods for carbon black result in particles with not only different sizes but also markedly different physical and chemical properties.

Channeling. Produces the tiniest particles, known as "Channel Black" or "Black 6." This variant is made from crude oil and gas with the smallest particle sizes ranging from 90-100 nanometers. It contains approximately 19% organic hydrocarbons and 81% inorganic elemental carbon. When it comes to color, it is characterized by its bluish undertone due to its small size and ability to scatter light efficiently at the blue end of the spectrum.

Furnacing. This method results in medium-sized particles called "Furnace Black" or "Black 2." This type is created from petroleum oils in a furnace, resulting in a medium particle size of 200-300 nanometers. It comprises 55% organic hydrocarbons and 45% inorganic elemental carbon. It has a greenish-anthracite appearance. These particles are large enough to scatter light across the blue to green wavelengths.

Thermal Processing. It creates the largest particles - up to 500 nanometers- and is composed of 1% organic and 99% inorganic elemental carbon, and is called "Thermal Black" or "Black 7." When it comes to its color, it is brownish and much warmer. These large particles scatter light across a broad range of wavelengths, resulting in the skin being much less opaque and, therefore, warmer.

Molecule vs. Crystal Lattice of Particles in General

The molecular structure differs from the crystalline structure found in larger particles. While a molecule is a single entity comprised of a defined number of atoms in a specific arrangement, a crystal lattice refers to a repeating pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules that extends throughout the material. This crystal lattice structure determines many of the macroscopic properties of the material, such as its color reflection and lightfastness.

Turbostratic or Paracrystalline structure in Carbon particles

In the context of pigments like carbon black, we differentiate between the molecular structure of the original organic substances and the complex arrangements found in the resulting particles. These carbon black particles typically exhibit a turbostratic or paracrystalline structure, where carbon atoms are restructured into nano-scale aggregates. These aggregates form the particles that are dispersed in pigment formulations. Their structure and arrangement, which are often less ordered than a true crystal lattice, play a crucial role in defining the particles' properties, such as color, light absorption, and lightfastness. Depending on the manufacturing process, these carbon particles can form various colloidal structures and are often too large to be soluble, typically existing as microscopic spheroidal agglomerates.

Analogy to onion

In a simplified analogy, the structure of some carbon black pigments can be thought of as resembling an onion, with each 'node' or molecule representing a point within peel-like layers. These layers are not neatly organized as in an onion but are arranged in a disordered, spherical shape to form the overall particle. While this image isn't precise on a molecular level, it conveys the general concept of layered structures that make up the carbon black particles used in pigments.

Forces inside particles

In carbon black particles, the arrangement of 'sheets' or layers of carbon atoms is primarily held together by van der Waals forces, which are relatively weaker than covalent bonds. The production method can influence the degree of crystallinity and the types of bonds within the particle. For instance, in some forms of carbon black, you might find regions where atoms within the sheets are linked by covalent bonds while the sheets themselves are held together by van der Waals forces. Additionally, some production methods can induce defects or functional groups that result in different types of interactions, such as hydrogen bonding or ionic interactions, although these are less common in carbon black particles compared to other substances.

The variety in particle bonding and structure contributes to the diversity of physical and chemical properties observed in different types of carbon black pigments.

Color reflection differences

General reflection properties depending on particle size The size of the particles has a direct impact on their color reflection properties due to the scattering of light:

Small Particles (90-100 nm). These particles are comparable in size to the wavelengths of violet and blue light, leading to Mie scattering that can give them a bluish hue.

Medium Particles (200-300 nm). Slightly larger particles interact with a wider range of wavelengths, affecting how colors such as green and blue are scattered, which can impart a greenish hue to the pigment.

Large Particles (500 nm and larger). These particles affect light similarly to bulk materials, absorbing various wavelengths and scattering violet and red light, resulting in a brownish appearance.

6. Degradation and lightfastness

Regarding the degradation of particles and their lightfastness, research suggests that larger, more aggregated particles tend to be more lightfast. As particle size increases, the fading rate due to light exposure decreases. For large particles, the fading rate correlates with the reciprocal of the particle radius (1/a^2), but as particles become smaller, the relationship shifts toward a 1/a dependence. With very small particles, the fading rate becomes less dependent on size.

Photon Interactions

When UV light, which consists of photons, strikes a pigment particle, the energy of the photons is either absorbed, scattered, or transmitted. The fate of these photons depends mainly on the size of the pigment particles and the wavelength of the incident light.

Large Particles and Lightfastness

Larger pigment particles tend to have better lightfastness, which is the ability of a substance to retain its color when exposed to light over time. There are several reasons for this.

Larger particles have a greater volume to distribute the energy they absorb from photons. Like a boulder hit by a sledgehammer, the larger mass absorbs the energy and disperses it, often in the form of non-destructive thermal energy (heat). This energy dissipation prevents the photons from causing significant structural changes to the pigment molecule. Scattering Efficiency. The scattering of light by a particle is influenced by its size relative to the wavelength of the light. Larger particles are often more effective at scattering light, including UV light, across a broader spectrum. Less energy is absorbed by any given point on the particle's surface, reducing the likelihood of photo-induced degradation - Surface Area to Volume Ratio. Larger particles have a smaller surface area-to-volume ratio compared to smaller particles.

This means there is less surface area for the light to interact with relative to the amount of material available to absorb and dissipate the energy-resonance Effects. For smaller particles, especially those with sizes on the order of the wavelength of UV light, resonance effects can enhance light absorption. This can lead to more energetic interactions that may break chemical bonds and cause degradation. Larger particles are less prone to these resonance effects due to their size being much larger than the wavelength of UV light.

Smaller Particles and increased reactivity

In contrast, smaller particles, like pebbles in the analogy, have less material to absorb the energy of incoming photons. They are more like fine targets that, when hit by the energetic photons of UV light, can be more easily "crushed" or degraded. The energy delivered by the photons can more readily break chemical bonds, particularly if the particle size resonates with the UV light's wavelength. This can lead to photochemical reactions that change the pigment's chemical structure, altering its color and decreasing its lightfastness.

Thus, the lightfastness of pigment particles is strongly influenced by their size, with larger particles generally exhibiting greater resistance to photodegradation due to more efficient energy distribution, scattering, and lower surface area-to-volume ratios. These properties make larger particles less reactive to UV light and more stable in retaining their color over time.

Reactions occur with absorbed wave-lengths of light

When a pigment particle absorbs light, the energy of the light is not always emitted again but can be transferred to the electrons within the pigment. This transfer of energy can excite the electrons to a higher energy state, which can be stable or may cause a reaction that alters the structure of the pigment. The likelihood of this photo-induced degradation is influenced by the pigment's chemical structure, the type of bonds it has, and the size of the particles. Smaller particles are more likely to absorb light energy that falls within their resonant frequencies, leading to more significant interactions and potential degradation. This phenomenon helps explain why smaller particles may exhibit lower lightfastness and fade more rapidly upon exposure to light, especially UV light.

The relationship between particle size, light absorption, and lightfastness is complex and integral to understanding the stability of pigments under light exposure. The size of the particles directly affects the range of wavelengths absorbed and thus determines which photonic reactions are more likely to occur.

Particle size plays a pivotal role in determining the physical and chemical properties of colorants. Larger particles tend to have different scattering properties and greater lightfastness than smaller ones. There are two reasons that smaller particle pigmetns tend to fade away quicker than the same colorant in larger particles.

Smaller pigment particles have lower lightfastness. This is because smaller particles have a larger surface area relative to their volume, which allows for more interaction with light.
The size of the particles directly affects the range of wavelengths absorbed and thus determines which photonic reactions are more likely to occur. Smaller particles absorb more wavelengths of light and reflect back fever. That is the reason more photonic reactions occur.

7. Particle size and skin

Molecular Stability and Particle Size Carbon-based particles, which are often used as pigments, owe their stability to the robustness of carbon-carbon (C-C) and carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. These bonds are known for their strength and resistance to breakdown by enzymes present in the skin. This molecular stability is a foundational reason why certain pigment particles, particularly those made of carbon or hydrocarbon compounds, persist in the skin after implantation.

Phagocytosis and Particle Size

The immune system's response to foreign particles, such as pigments, is significantly influenced by the size of these particles. Macrophages are more likely to phagocytose larger particles that exceed 0.5 micrometers. However, smaller particles, those less than 200 nanometers, may evade the macrophages due to their reduced efficiency at such sizes. This inefficiency allows smaller particles to persist in the dermal layer longer than larger ones, which can be cleared more readily by immune cells.

Compatibility with Skin's Lipid Matrix

The solubility of pigment particles in the skin's lipid matrix affects how well they integrate into the skin. Particles that contain a higher percentage of organic hydrocarbons, such as "Furnace Black" (Black 2), which can have up to 55% organic hydrocarbons, are known to integrate more quickly due to their compatibility with the lipid-rich environment of the skin. This ease of integration reduces the likelihood of the particles being encapsulated by the body's defenses or eliminated from the skin, leading to more durable pigmentation.

pH Levels and Particle Size

The pH level of pigment particles can affect their interaction with the skin. Smaller particles, particularly those at the nanoscale, often have pH levels that are more alkaline, which may not be as compatible with the slightly acidic environment of the skin. In contrast, larger particles, typically those in the 200-300 nm range, tend to have more acidic properties, aligning better with the skin's natural pH. Thus, it may result in improved retention and easier implantation.

Empirical Observations

Empirical evidence supports the idea that particle size affects implantation ease. For example, "Furnace Black" (Black 2), with its larger particle size and higher hydrocarbon content, is easier to implant compared to "Channel Black" (Black 6), which has a considerably smaller particle size. This can be due to a combination of factors, including better compatibility with the skin's pH and the natural lipid matrix, as well as reduced phagocytosis for larger particles.

Covalent Bonds of particles

These are the strongest types of bonds present within the structure of carbon black particles. They are responsible for forming the carbon sheets and structures, like graphene layers, that make up the individual particles. Interparticle Forces in Aggregates The bonds between particles in an aggregate are typically van der Waals forces, which are much weaker than covalent bonds.

In conclusion, the particle size of pigment not only dictates its stability and resistance to degradation but also significantly affects how it interacts with biological systems within the skin. This encompasses immune responses such as phagocytosis, integration into the skin's lipid matrix, compatibility with skin pH, and the overall ease of implantation. Understanding these factors is crucial for the selection and application of pigments in semi-permanent makeup and other dermatological applications.

8. Aggregates

A cluster made of about tens of particles on the left and a smiling woman on the right.

Difference from Particles in Pigments In the context of pigments, the distinction between particles and aggregates is primarily one of scale and interaction. Particles are the primary units of a pigment, consisting of a small cluster of molecules or a single crystal structure. In contrast, aggregates are clusters of these particles that have bonded together.

Comparison of particles

These are the smallest discrete units that retain the pigment's properties. In carbon black, for instance, a particle is a fragment of many carbon atoms arranged in a particular structure. These can range in size from nanometers to micrometers and can be considered the fundamental 'building blocks' of the pigment.

Aggregates properties

When particles cluster together through physical interactions, they form aggregates. These structures are held together by weaker forces than the chemical bonds within the individual particles. For carbon black, these aggregates form when the primary particles undergo van der Waals forces.

Van der Waals forces

Van der Waals forces are much weaker than covalent bonds and are a type of non-covalent interaction. They are caused by the transient electric dipoles that occur when electrons within an atom or molecule are unevenly distributed. In carbon black, van der Waals forces come into play between particles, leading to the formation of aggregates. These forces are significant enough to keep the particles together in a loose form but are much weaker than the covalent bonds within the particles. The aggregates formed through van der Waals forces can influence the physical properties of the pigment, such as its color intensity and dispersibility.

The conditions of pigment manufacturing influence aggregation and can affect the final properties of the pigment, such as its color strength, dispersion ability, and stability. In applications like semi-permanent makeup, the degree of aggregation can affect how the pigment interacts with biological tissues. Example: Strengths of Bonds in Carbon Black Within a single carbon black particle, the carbon atoms are bonded by strong covalent bonds. These are robust bonds where atoms share electrons, providing significant stability to the particle's structure.

These forces are non-covalent and arise due to transient electric dipole moments when the electrons within molecules or particles are unevenly distributed. This can happen in carbon black aggregates, where the particles come close enough together for these forces to become significant. In carbon black, the forces within aggregates can be substantial enough to resist some degree of mechanical stress without breaking. However, they are generally weak compared to the covalent bonds within the particles. However, under various conditions, such as when a pigment is dispersed in a medium, these aggregates can break apart into individual particles.

Understanding hierarchy of breakdown of pigment

When considering the decomposition of pigment within the skin, the process generally follows a hierarchical breakdown. Initially, agglomerates, which are clusters of aggregates, may disassemble into their constituent aggregates. These aggregates are collections of smaller particles bound together primarily by van der Waals forces, which are weaker than the covalent bonds within the particles.

The subsequent disintegration of these aggregates into individual particles is typically more challenging, as the particles themselves are stabilized by stronger covalent bonds between atoms within the carbon black's crystalline or paracrystalline structure. The integrity of the individual molecules within these particles is even more robust, making them less susceptible to degradation.

As for the atoms within the molecules, they are the most stable and least likely to be decomposed. The atomic structure, protected by strong covalent bonds, is generally not affected by enzymatic activity, UV exposure, or immune responses such as phagocytosis that might disrupt the larger pigment structures. Decomposition at the atomic level, such as splitting or altering protons and neutrons within an atom's nucleus, is a process that does not occur under normal biological conditions in the skin.

9. Pigment Droplet

An attractive woman smiling on the left, a droplet of black pigment with the label 5 000 000 nm, and a small particle with the label 100 nm on the right.

Human Eye and Visibility

The human eye can see objects down to about 0.1 millimeters (100 micrometers) under normal lighting conditions. This is the limit of our visual acuity without a microscope. Pigment particles and aggregates within a pigment droplet are far smaller, usually on the order of nanometers (10^-9 meters) to a few micrometers (10^-6 meters). This means that the individual particles and aggregates in a pigment suspension are thousands of times smaller than we can discern with the naked eye.

Composition of a Pigment Droplet

A droplet of pigment is a complex mixture that includes not only the colorant particles and aggregates but also a variety of additives:

Solvents. Liquid substances are used to dissolve other materials; in pigments, they help to maintain the colorant in a liquid state for application.

Binders. Substances that provide adhesion, helping the pigment particles stick to the application surface.

Fillers. Materials added to increase volume or alter the pigment's properties, such as texture or consistency.

Preservatives. Chemicals are used to prolong the shelf life of the pigment by preventing microbial growth.

The properties of a pigment droplet are, therefore, the result of this complex mixture. The additives can modify viscosity, drying time, and pigment's interaction with the skin or other surfaces.

When additional components are present in the liquid carrier of the pigment droplet, they can influence the behavior and properties of the pigment particles.

An example: Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and Lightfastness

The presence of titanium dioxide in the pigment formulation can have a significant impact on the lightfastness of the pigment. TiO2 is known for its high refractive index and UV reflection capabilities. When included in a pigment droplet, TiO2 can scatter and reflect UV light, enhancing photonic reactions that can lead to the degradation of other pigment components. This reflective property means TiO2 can effectively 'redirect' light towards other colorant particles, potentially accelerating their breakdown when exposed to light over time.

The interaction between TiO2 and other pigment components, particularly under UV light, is a crucial consideration for manufacturers formulating pigments for applications where exposure to light is a concern, such as in semi-permanent makeup. The presence of TiO2 can alter the expected behavior of a pigment based on the colorant's individual lightfastness properties.

Collective behavior of variables

Therefore, the pigment droplet is the first level at which we can start to observe the collective behavior of the pigment system with the naked eye. This macro-level view encompasses the physical and chemical interactions of all the components, which can significantly differ from the properties of the individual particles or aggregates on the micro or nanoscale. Understanding these interactions is critical to predicting the performance and stability of pigments in their intended applications.

Analyzing pigment properties at the droplet level introduces a complex array of variables. To derive meaningful insights, one must examine specific brands and products in detail.

Importance of having some healthy skepticism

For artists, it is essential to adopt a critical perspective toward product labels and marketing narratives. The abundance of online content - from videos to social media posts - frequently features artists endorsing producer talking points. Often, these promotional messages oversimplify the nuanced realities of chemistry, physics, biology, anatomy, and other relevant disciplines.

"Super-human" abilities and pseudo-science

Moreover, there is a troubling trend where these promotional discussions blur the distinctions between various size-related units within pigmentology. It is not uncommon to encounter bold claims where the properties of elemental molecules are conflated with those of larger particles or where artists assert they can visually discern particles smaller than 0.5 micrometers without any magnification - a feat that defies the capabilities of the unaided human eye.

Additionally, complex immunological processes like phagocytosis are sometimes reduced to overly simplistic explanations. Such interpretations can be misleading and, at times, contradict established scientific understanding. There is no universal consensus among scientists regarding some of these processes; what is presented as an 'exception' in promotional materials may be impossible by scientific standards.

Therefore, professional artists must approach these topics with a healthy skepticism and a commitment to understanding the scientific principles underpinning their craft. Misinformation can not only lead to misconceptions but can also impact the quality and safety of the procedures they perform. Artists should strive to enhance their knowledge through credible sources and continuing education, ensuring their practices are aligned with the latest evidence-based findings in pigmentology and dermatology.

10. The "Lego"-analogy

As the chemists and cellular biologists repeatedly used similar analogies, here it is one more time to hammer home the actual relations between the atoms of elements, molecules, and particles in pigments.

Elements as "Lego" Blocks

Just as Lego blocks serve as the foundational units from which a variety of structures can be built, elements are the basic building blocks of matter. Each element, like a unique type of Lego piece, has its own properties that determine how it can connect and interact with other elements. In chemistry, these interactions are guided by the properties of the atoms, such as the number of protons in the nucleus and the configuration of electrons that determine an atom's reactivity. For example, Carbon can be one Lego piece with a certain shape and form, Hydrogen another, etc.

Molecules as Assembled Lego Pieces

Molecules are akin to several Lego pieces snapped together to form a specific shape or structure. Each molecule represents a specific combination of elements (Lego pieces) bonded together in a precise arrangement. Just as the shape and functionality of a Lego construct are defined by the way the blocks are connected, the properties of a molecule - including its color, reactivity, and physical attributes - are determined by the types and arrangements of its constituent atoms. Basically, it can be compared to someone having snapped together certain pieces to build something grander out of those (or in some Lego sets, certain pieces already come snapped together).

Particles as Complex Lego Structures

A particle is analogous to a larger, more complex Lego structure composed of multiple connected shapes (molecules). This structure might consist of thousands or tens of thousands of individual Lego pieces (atoms), which may be organized into substructures (molecules). The way these substructures are put together can result in various patterns that repeat across the particle, contributing to its robustness and defining its properties, such as how it reflects light, which gives a pigment its color.

In the context of pigments, particles with the same Color Index code can indeed have vastly different properties because they can be constructed differently at the molecular level, much like different Lego structures built with the same basic blocks but arranged in different patterns or designs. The processing and treatment of these particles during manufacturing can also affect their properties, analogous to how the stability and appearance of a Lego structure can change depending on the techniques used to assemble it.

This also means that for some structures, the initially snapped-together pieces may be opened; for others, they are used as those are. As well as for some structures, certain pieces may be left unused.

The beauty and strength of these pigment structures as particles resemble the masterful Lego creations that repeat patterns to form both aesthetically pleasing and structurally sound objects.

Thus, the same 'Lego blocks' (atoms) can be assembled into 'pieces' (molecules) with varying shapes and functions and further built into grand 'structures' (particles) that define the characteristics we see and utilize in everyday applications, from art to cosmetics.

11. Conclusion

Multi-level Analysis of Pigment Properties In the analysis of pigments used in various applications, including semi-permanent makeup, it's essential to consider multiple levels of structure, each contributing to the overall behavior and properties of the pigment. Here is an enhanced and fact-checked version of the conclusion:

Atoms

Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter, each consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. They form the basic units of elements and define the primary characteristics of any substance.

Molecules

Molecules are formed when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together. They represent the smallest units of a compound that exhibit the compound's unique chemical properties. Molecules are the basis for the characteristics we often associate with a particular compound, including its initial color and reactivity.

Particles

Particles are the next level of structure, consisting of many molecules that come together to form a stable assembly. In the context of pigments, particles often take on a crystalline or paracrystalline form, arranging the atoms in a structured manner that determines the color and optical properties of the pigment. Aggregates: Aggregates are clusters of particles that are bonded together by weaker forces, such as van der Waals interactions. The formation of aggregates can influence the pigment's texture, how it disperses in a medium, and how it interacts with light.

Droplets

A droplet is the macro-level quantity of pigment that can be observed with the naked eye. It contains not only pigment particles and aggregates but also a variety of other substances, including solvents, binders, fillers, and preservatives. These additives can dramatically affect the pigment's properties beyond color, including its ease of application, drying time, and interactions within a biological environment.

Optimal Level of Analysis - Particles

The particle level is the most informative when evaluating the properties of pigments. Particles determine essential attributes such as color intensity, lightfastness, stability, and ease of implantation. They are directly involved in the pigment's interaction with the skin, influencing how it is perceived, how it will behave during and after application, and how it will be processed by the body's immune system.

In essence, a comprehensive understanding of pigment behavior requires an analysis that considers all these structural levels, but with a primary focus on the particle level. This is where the intrinsic properties defined by the atom and molecule are expressed in a form that directly impacts the practical use and longevity of the pigment in applications like semi-permanent makeup. Understanding these structural hierarchies is crucial for professionals in selecting and applying pigments to achieve desired outcomes.

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Comments

Ashley

Tuesday, Nov 14, 2023

I can not even express how thankful I am for this whole site and system. I started with nothing and just had a desire to learn, Most of the sites I found were affiliates of some producers, etc, and it was hard to get an objective perspective. You guys really opened my eyes. I totally feel confident now because I just do know more. Thank you so much!

Sangeeta

Monday, Nov 06, 2023

I think the lego-analogy really made it clear for me. I have been two two courses where trainers spoke about the same things exactly as you said – mixing up the particle and the molecule and they both had different stories and could not answer my questions. this material is just great!

Deepika

Monday, Nov 06, 2023

I very comprehensive article and I agree, most artists mix everything up and really do not know what they are talking about. This is very comprehensive and good text about it!

Carol

Saturday, Nov 04, 2023

This post – though simple in nature – actually helped me probably the most at the beginning of my career. And all about the pseudo-science is true. I believe many artists talk about complicated concepts that are way above what they are able to comprehend. I think people should talk about things they understand. Great info – keep it going!

From Atoms to Droplets (Five-level analysis)

1. Background

2. Five Basic units

Basic units for understanding colorant properties

3. Atom

The Example of Carbon

Relevance to Pigmentology

4. Molecule

Hydrocarbon Example - CH4

Molecules in Pigmentology

Implantation and Retention

Particle Structure vs. Molecular Structure

5. Particle

Particle and Particle Size

Particle Size and Properties

Production Methods and Impact

Molecule vs. Crystal Lattice of Particles in General

Turbostratic or Paracrystalline structure in Carbon particles

Analogy to onion

Forces inside particles

Color reflection differences

6. Degradation and lightfastness

Photon Interactions

Large Particles and Lightfastness

Smaller Particles and increased reactivity

Reactions occur with absorbed wave-lengths of light

7. Particle size and skin

Phagocytosis and Particle Size

Compatibility with Skin's Lipid Matrix

pH Levels and Particle Size

Empirical Observations

Covalent Bonds of particles

8. Aggregates

Comparison of particles

Aggregates properties

Van der Waals forces

Understanding hierarchy of breakdown of pigment

9. Pigment Droplet

Human Eye and Visibility

Composition of a Pigment Droplet

An example: Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and Lightfastness

Collective behavior of variables

Importance of having some healthy skepticism

"Super-human" abilities and pseudo-science

10. The "Lego"-analogy

Elements as "Lego" Blocks

Molecules as Assembled Lego Pieces

Particles as Complex Lego Structures

11. Conclusion

Atoms

Molecules

Particles

Droplets

Optimal Level of Analysis - Particles